Structural Organisation in Animals

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Animal Tissues

This section explores the four primary animal tissues and their functions, structures, and locations:

• Epithelial Tissue – Simple and Compound epithelia; squamous, cuboidal, columnar, and ciliated types.

1. Functions in protection, secretion, absorption, and diffusion.
2. Concepts of tight junctions, gap junctions, desmosomes, and basement membrane.
3. Differentiation between simple, compound, and pseudostratified epithelia.
4. Role of microvilli (in PCT) and cilia (in respiratory tract and oviduct).

• Connective Tissue – Loose, Dense, and Specialized types.

1. Includes Areolar, Adipose, Dense regular/irregular, Cartilage, Bone, and Blood.
2. Understanding matrix composition, fibres (collagen, elastin), and cell types (fibroblasts, macrophages, mast cells).
3. Comparison of Bone vs Cartilage, Areolar vs Adipose, and Dense Regular vs Irregular tissues.
4. Key structures: lacunae, canaliculi, osteocytes, chondrocytes.

• Muscular Tissue – Skeletal, Smooth, and Cardiac muscle fibres.

1. Distinction between voluntary vs involuntary, striated vs non-striated.
2. Role of intercalated discs, branching, and syncytial nature of muscle fibres.
3. Muscle contraction and functional correlation with movement and locomotion.

• Nervous Tissue – Structure and function of Neurons and Neuroglia.

1. Functions of dendrites, axons, myelin sheath, and synapses.
2. Role of impulse conduction and reflex coordination.
3. Comparison between neurons and supporting glial cells.

🪳 2. Cockroach (Periplaneta americana)

Detailed understanding of external morphology, body segmentation, and internal systems:

1. Body division – head, thorax, abdomen; segmentation and appendages.
2. Digestive system – foregut (with chitin lining), midgut (digestion), hindgut (absorption & excretion).
3. Circulatory system – open type with haemolymph.
4. Respiratory system – tracheal tubes and spiracles.
5. Excretory system – Malpighian tubules (uricotelic).
6. Reproductive system –
7. Male: mushroom gland (utricle gland), testes, vas deferens, spermatophore.
8. Female: ootheca formation, collateral glands, spermathecae.
9. Nervous system – supra-oesophageal ganglion (brain), ventral nerve cord, segmental ganglia.
10. Sense organs – antennae, compound eyes, anal cerci.

🐸 3. Frog (Rana tigrina or Rana hexadactyla)

Covers anatomy, physiology, and organ system coordination:

1. Digestive system – mouth, buccal cavity, stomach, intestine, cloaca; glands like liver, pancreas.
2. Respiratory system – cutaneous, buccopharyngeal, and pulmonary respiration.
3. Function of glottis and buccal cavity regulation.
4. Circulatory system – three-chambered heart, sinus venosus, conus arteriosus, and mixed blood circulation.
5. Nervous system – CNS, PNS, and ANS; forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain; coordination of posture and equilibrium by cerebellum.
6. Reproductive system – male and female differences, shell gland, and fertilization in cloaca.
7. Adaptations – amphibian mode of life and structural correlations.