Electrovalent and covalent bonding

HF has the strongest hydrogen bonds among the listed compounds, resulting in a higher boiling point.

H₂O forms strong hydrogen bonds between its molecules, which leads to a higher boiling point, making it a liquid at room temperature, while CO₂ has weaker van der Waals forces, making it a gas.

In the liquid state, covalent compounds do not conduct electricity because they do not have free-moving ions or electrons.

Polar covalent compounds like HCl can ionize in water, while non-polar covalent compounds typically do not.

HF forms a polar covalent bond due to the difference in electronegativity between H and F. The electron dot structure shows a shared pair of electrons between H and F, and three lone pairs on F.

In the molten state, the crystal lattice of ionic compounds breaks down, and the ions are free to move, allowing them to conduct electricity.

In water, the polar water molecules surround and separate the Na⁺ and Cl⁻ ions, allowing them to move freely and conduct electricity.

The strong electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions forms a solid crystal lattice, making most ionic compounds solid at room temperature.

Ionic compounds conduct electricity in aqueous solution because the ions dissociate and move freely, while in the solid state, they are locked in a crystal lattice.

Ionic compounds have strong electrostatic forces between ions, requiring high energy to overcome, which leads to high melting and boiling points.